Saturday, July 27, 2019
Codes of Cultural Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Codes of Cultural Behavior - Essay Example In general France being a multiethnic country provides a basis for vast research for my assignment. France national identity is based on historical origins of Celtic, Gallo-Romano and Frankish cultures. The France culture is very much influenced by their old traditions; hence it’s difficult to change their practices. France operates under constitution that was born in 1958, which has not changed to date; this shows the French are comfortable with their governance. After the world war two this country was greatly affected in terms of decreasing fertility levels among sexes, economic imbalances, also decreased social economic resources available. The government is highly centralized. The culture promotes equality for all. Religious freedom is guaranteed by the constitution and it’s a personal choice of every citizen in France .religion is however one of the main conflicts in France, however the French stand for their religious beliefs Catholism being the dominant religion although there are several Jews and approximately 1200 Islamic organizations. France however is a secular country as most people rarely attend masses. The official language in France is French since the nineteenth century, although local dialects such as Breton, Catalan and Basque are still in use and some are taught in some regional schools. Major social problems include, homelessness, terrorism, economic instabilities and AIDS (Thomas pg246).the population according to the census is 1999 was about 58.5 million which is approximated to be more than that at the moment (Agulhon pg105) Do learn some French phrases before travelling to France like bonjour which is their hello, merci which is thanks and au revoir which is French for good-bye. This will take you a long way as they appreciate tourists learning some little French and use it while talking to them. You must also
Friday, July 26, 2019
Automation System Implementation in manual process of a company Research Paper
Automation System Implementation in manual process of a company - Research Paper Example It has however stuck to the manual way of piecing together buildings. The construction of a building is a typical assembly process. It involves piecing together a number of standard items in order to come up with a customized product. The customized product is a building that is constructed according to the specifications of the owner. It could be a tall skyscraper towering above all the rest in the vicinity; a cylindrical structure; a dome shaped structure; an arc shaped structure or even a basic one roomed house. There are several standard items that form part of a house. A standard item is one which is produced in denominations of equal sizes. They are used everywhere in accordance to the pre set size denominations. Standard items are strategically positioned in order to assemble a complete house. They include doors, window frames, window panes, plumbing pipes, electric wires, taps, sinks, bath tabs, floor tiles, nails, bolts, screws, roofing tiles, water garters, building blocks, door latches, door locks, iron sheets among others. These are produced in common sizes that are universally acknowledged. A typical building assembles these standard items in accordance to a well laid out design. This makes the construction of a building a typical assembly process. For the sake of this extract, a single building is considered. A single self contained one roomed bedsitter. This bedsitter’s walls are made of standard building blocks. The roof is made of standard corrugated iron sheets and roofing tiles. It is a building with no storey. It is a square shaped building, 15feet by 15feet. The roof if flat but inclined towards the back of the building. It has one main door and another that leads to the washroom. The washroom is a single rectangular room, 4feet by 8feet. It is complete with a toilet seat, a shower head and a tap on a sink. The building has two windows, one in the front and another small one leading from the washroom behind the house. A 5000liters pl astic tank is on the roof. Metallic pipes are used for plumbing. Plastic pipes through the walls create passages for electric wiring. Standard ceiling boards are below the roof in the house interior. The floor is done with standard square tiles. The building requires several materials to be able to put up. The bill of materials in the next page categorically outlines the material that is required for each portion of the building. The building is divided into eight key portions for proper analysis of the materials required. These portions are the foundation, floor system, wall system, roof system, plumbing system, electric system, finishing and the miscellaneous. Bill of Materials PORTION NAME MATERIAL Foundation Building blocks Ballast, Sand, Cement, Water Building rocks Rocks Sand Sand Cement Cement Murram Murram Gravel Gravel Floor system Sand Sand Cement Cement Wall System Building Blocks Ballast, Sand, Cement, Water Sand Sand Cement Cement Twisted Metal Bars Steel Door Frames Wo od Window Frames Steel Roof System Trusses Wood Cross Members Wood Iron Sheet Galvanized Iron Roofing Tiles Ceramics Eaves Wood Gutters Galvanized Iron Plumbing System Sink Vitreous China Shower Head Galvanized Iron Toilet Seat Vitreous China Metal Pipes Galvanized Iron Plastic Pipes PVC Taps Brass Elbow Joints PVC and Galvanized Iron Electrical System Cables Copper Switches Plastic Sockets Plastic Bulbs Glass and Iron Meter Box Steel, Plastics and Copper Finishing Doors Wood Windows Steel Ceiling Boards
Thursday, July 25, 2019
Nestle and Unilever Companies International Marketing Strategies Article - 1
Nestle and Unilever Companies International Marketing Strategies - Article Example The company has, therefore, involved itself in the production of food brands, personal care brands and even home care brands. Also, nestle has specialized has diversified its products as it produces different products that serve different market segments. Both companies have standardized their products in order to fit in the global market. Both companies provide the same quality of products in different parts of the world where they operate. As a result, they are able to create customer loyalty towards the product as the standard of their products is of high. This also plays an important part of being a competitive tool as the features of their products are distinct therefore the products cannot be easily manipulated by the competitors for their malicious gains. Both companies use the latest advertisement strategies to attract new customers to purchase their products and remind their customers of the existence of the products in the market. Some of the latest sites where both of these companies use to communicate to their customers are the social networks. This serves as an important part of enabling the companies to know the changing consumer behaviors and communicates with the customers concerning any issues that might be affecting them e.g. propaganda by the competitors. One of the differences in international marketing of the two companies is how they price their commodities. Nestle prices the commodities depending on the geographical location of the consumers demand of the product in the market and other demographics such as the age of the target customers, and their income. On the other hand, Unilever sets prices according to the level of competition in the market.
Wednesday, July 24, 2019
Pharrell Williams and Robin Thicke Versus Marvin Gayes Case Essay - 1
Pharrell Williams and Robin Thicke Versus Marvin Gayes Case - Essay Example Marvin’s children said that the money they demanded was what they believed their father would have been given had he signed his song with the label. Robin and Williams argued that the family only had a right to the sheet music and not the sound. In fact, earlier they had sued Marvin’s estates in order to stop them from going ahead with their copyright infringement case. However, they both did not claim to have written this song together but independently. They held on to their innocence and said they were not through with the case yet. An additional $8000 is also to be added to the amount given to Marvin Gaye’s estate. This case has brought down Williams reputation as a songwriter as he was ordered to pay $1.6 million while Robin $1.7 million (Grow). Copyright infringement occurs when anybody breaches the restricted rights of another person’s material whether words, sound or pictures. This rule is seen as theft as the violator uses a copyrighted material without the owner’s authorization (Campbell, Cotter & Center for International Legal Studies, 2). Even though the two songs do not have the same sound, the words in the two songs are similar and this constitutes a breach. The two musicians have violated Marvin Gaye’s song even though they argue that the sheet music is what Gaye copyrighted.
Tuesday, July 23, 2019
Lived Experience of Anxiety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Lived Experience of Anxiety - Essay Example Chronic illnesses such as cancer, diabetes, and other mental disorders are associated with anxiety. Anxiety is common among patients undergoing Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanning, a modern technology in radiography that gives images of human tissues. Some researches have indicated that about 25-37% of patients undergoing the scan experience moderate to high levels of anxiety (Tornqvist et al, 2006). The causes of anxiety among patients during MRI scanning are varied. Some of the causes are the scan environment and the levels of noise. MRI scans can take between 25 and 60 minutes (Royal Adelaide Hospital, 1998) or even more and the patient is required to stay still in this period to get good result (Tornqvist et al, 2006). Short breath in the scanner may cause anxiety. Anxiety is also caused by fear of the results that may be revealed by the scan. The anxiety can increase in certain instances leading to the disruption of the scanning process. This is disastrous to the patient a s well the health-providing center. 2. Aim and purpose of the study The main aim of the study is to illuminate the lived experience of patients during an episode of anxiety. The study seeks to provide an answer to the given research questions: what are the general experiences of the patients during the MRI scanning process and how did they manage the difficulties. It will help identify the approaches that can help the radiographers to support the patients with anxiety during MRI scan to avoid the odds associated with premature termination of the scanning process. 3. The study approach- phenomenology The study will apply phenomenology approach in getting information on the above topic. Phenomenology, as a study discipline, involves the study of different structures of an individual’s experience or consciousness (Smith, 2008). The discipline is concerned with the appearance of events and things in the experience of an individual, the way these things are perceived, and the ulti mate meanings that they have in the experiences of the individuals (Smith, 2008). Phenomenological approach in research involves seeking the information on first-hand experience. The approach is concerned with probing into a given phenomenon and further investigation to have a better understanding of some lived experience (Tornqvist et al., 2006). It involves an encounter with the individual, who is supposed to share his or her experience freely, with little guidance/ influence from the interviewer. A study of this nature seeks to give ‘insightful descriptions of patients’ pre-reflective experiences’ (Tornqvist et al, 2006, p.955). The research seeks information of this nature and hence the phenomenology approach is best suitable here. 4. The data collection method and qualitative The participants for the study will be drawn from the list of patients who have undergone MRI scan at the college hospitals. The researcher has accessed the patients register, through a permission from the management of the hospital, to get the contacts of these patients. Twenty individuals will be required to participate in the interview. Since some of the individuals contacted may decline to participate in the study, the researcher obtained randomly selected contacts of about 35 patients who had undergone MRI scan within the month of January 2012. The data collect
Graphics Image in the Media Essay Example for Free
Graphics Image in the Media Essay The graphical portrayal of hostility, disaster and even death is generally essential to broadcast and print media. People are attracted to a gruesome but actual picture of life and it is where the public draws its sense of reality. A visual representation or picture normally has more effect than a broadcasted or published story. This is because its power to influence people surpasses spoken or written words. The media industry is subjected to the unwanted but common principle of â€Å"if it bleeds, it leads and is fatally attracted to the harsh journalism world where photographers, who produce graphic images of grim and emotional moments, are the ones being acknowledged and awarded more. As a result, the broadcast and print media is faced with a dilemma of commercially promoting the industry by inevitably sacrificing its ethical standard. Thus, viewers and readers tend to be offended and attracted to such graphical representations of real life events at the same time. The public wants to learn and feel the drama behind an incident but refuse to accept and confront its awkward details. However, the power of the media to influence people with its graphical depiction of events entails a responsibility. Media is bound by its obligation to present to the public what it deserves to know. Graphic images in the media, as a representation of reality, should never cease to exist despite the controversies and objections.            Media organizations are oftentimes assailed or criticized after airing or publishing a controversial graphic image that presents, for instance, a dead person or grieving victims of real-life events such as violence and calamities. Viewers and readers attack the editors and most specifically the photographers for being apathetic or insensitive and for making the pain of the person(s) worse by displaying the picture. Nevertheless, the photographer responsible and his or her editor are both obliged to present reality as it truly happens. On the other hand, these media practitioners defend themselves by arguing that it is innate for humans to have morbid enchantment with hostilities and calamities. It is just sad to note that these are the same critics who charge the media people for being insensitive and for taking advantage of the sufferings of others. The Boston Photographs            No matter how gruesome, graphic images are commonly used and known to ignite more dramatic reactions from people than stories. According to Nora Ephron, disturbing pictures of any incidents need to be shown to the public either through broadcast or publication. The fact that such graphic images affect or move the feeling of the public is exactly what pictures should be which in turn make photojournalism much more powerful than print media.            Ephrons article titled â€Å"The Boston Photographs†talks about the legality and ethical justification of printing controversial graphic images. Ephron discussed the pictures of a rescue attempt, captured in consecutive manner that unfortunately went wrong. â€Å"The Boston Photographs†depicts a woman who was attempting to get out from her burning apartment building. However, while escaping and during her rescue, the woman fell to her death after her flat’s fire escape crumbled. The publication of the graphic images of the dead woman resulted into a lot of dispute from offended people who felt and reasoned that it was inappropriate and uncalled for to publish images of a dead person. However, despite the negative reactions and criticisms, Ephron confirmed the publication of the photographs and reasoned that they were exemplary representation of reality that needs to be printed. Ephron is justified in promoting and fighting for the printing of the said pictures simply because of the fact that human accident and even death are major realities of life.            Regardless of the dramatic intensity created by the said graphic images and their alleged ethical violation, the public has the right to view the actual happenings of the real world including death. A lot of people were offended with the coming of the â€Å"The Boston Photographs†where in Ephron defended that â€Å"death happens to be one of life’s main events.†Again, it was just unfortunate to state that many people in our society usually let their emotions prevail and ignore the basic responsibility of the media to present the truth to the public.            Ephron wrote about three arguable graphic images of a failed rescue attempt that were captured by Boston Herald American Newspaper photographer Stanley Forman. With the use of a motor driven camera, Forman was able to take three frames per second of the famous â€Å"Fire on Marlborough Street!†on July 22, 1975. The first graphic image pictured a fireman who is trying to rescue a woman and a child. A collapsing fire escape was shown on the second graphic image. The last graphic image was the most controversial as it showed how the rescue attempt failed as the woman and her daughter fell from their apartment window resulting in the woman dying on the spot while her daughter survived as she landed on her mothers body.            Criticizing from the graphic images of the helpless victims alone, it can be ethically challenged that such gruesome pictures were used and published to gain commercial prominence or profit. A critic can even argue that the pictures were not representations of reality as they were captured with the primary intention of getting ones attention. However, Ephron was able to make her article very easy to be understood. Ephron succeeded in presenting all the components of the incident. She initially told about the details of the particular fire accidents. She continued by presenting how the readers reacted to the graphic image. Ephron further presented another angle when she disclosed the views as well as reactions of the newspaper editors. Citing a particular example, Ephron also included in her article how former managing editor of the Washington Star explained his personal view about publishing the three graphic images. In whole, the Ephron article was able to justify the existence and utilization of graphic images by the media industry by defending its necessity and importance in reminding people that such reality happen in everyday life. 9/11 Terrorist Attacks Aside from the famous Forman fire photo, another incident in the American history that was vividly presented in a lot of graphic images was the events of September 11. According to the news article by Jim Rutenberg and Felicity Barringer, the news producers had a difficult time sorting out the graphic images taken after the attack on the World Trace Center on September 11, 2001. Meanwhile, in her article from the Christian Science Monitor, Susan Leach cited Moeller who said that the controversies and arguments about the graphic images of tragic incidents such as the September 11 terrorist attacks resulted from the public notion that the media is using such gruesome pictures for commercial purposes. These marketing strategies are used primarily to gain profit such as to grab the peoples attention, lure the readers to buy the publication and prevent the viewers to switch their channels. Moeller, a professor of media and international affairs at the University of Maryland, adds: â€Å"[e]ven when the public is distressed by difficult images, if that news outlet is transparent about its reasons for running those pictures there has generally been very little outcry and protest, and often support for that ethical decision.†(qtd. in Leach).            The previous article also stated that one important component in justifying and deciding how the media uses graphic images of a tragic event is the nearness of the incident. Moeller further explained that if something is geographically distant and psychologically distant as well [with] no close emotional ties to the area, then the home media is a lot more likely to use graphic images.† One particular example is the coverage of the Madrid bombing incident as an aftermath of the September 11 US attacks. Moeller commented on how reserved the British media were, just like the American media when it covered and presented the 9/11 incident. â€Å"In other words, they really didnt show body parts, Moeller noted (qtd. in Leach).            In contrast, a comprehensive coverage of the collapse of the World Trade Center was depicted in a lot and more graphic images outside the U.S. According to editor Naureckas, the worldwide audience of the 9/11 attacks did not need to receive a discreet graphic images of falling pieces of the twin towers and carnage of thousands of people in order to be updated of the event. Rather, the use of more vivid and even gruesome pictures is necessary for other people to feel the pain and sympathize with the American people (qtd. in Leach). To cite an an example, Naureckas said: â€Å"if you were in another country where people who live in New York might be an abstraction, then seeing the actual person jumping out the window might have brought you closer to the event†(qtd. in Leach). Limitations            As stated earlier, the use of graphic images in the media is a privilege but it requires responsibility. Thus, it has to have some limitations. Effective limitations and conditions can be considered an otherwise absolute interpretation of â€Å"freedom of the press.†The restriction, editing, or censorship of graphic images (especially gruesome and controversial pictures) may be done by an independent body that governs and has authority over the media industry or it can start from the media organization itself by depending on the fair, critical and objective wisdom and judgment of its management as well as editors. In doing so, concerns whether graphic images in the media should be aired or not, or print or not can be addressed.            Ethical behavior may be in accordance with standards put up by the media organizations. These standards may be useful but usually vague thus they cannot anticipate any eventuality. Citing as an example is the Code of Ethics that media members generally follow. However, it fails particularly identify gruesome situations as depicted by graphic images. Generally, the â€Å"Code of Ethics†includes a provision where photographers â€Å"should at all times maintain the highest standards of ethical conduct.†Photojournalism â€Å"is worthy of the very best thought and effort, and members should â€Å"maintain high standards of ethical conduct (qtd. in Lester).            The issue of ethical standards, in the media in line with its choice to use graphic images, was what The Post freelance columnist Nick Clooney emphasized in his column titled â€Å"Media should use ethics standards.†According to Clooney, it is the responsibility of the media to abide with a set of ethical standards. He added that the moral guidelines should emanate and practiced within the industry and thus should not be violated by his colleagues. In citing a particular case that called for the setting of ethical standards in the media, Clooney mentioned the publishing of a tabloid of a picture of a rape trial victim which he said violated the privacy of that person. Clooney stressed that such instance of showing a graphic image by print media made him angry. This is because such sensationalism by what he called the â€Å"news quacks or the scandal-mongers and entertainers posing as journalist†violated not only ones privacy but the moral standing of the media. Clooney was not at all opposed to the use of graphic image in the media but rather concern that there is still a need for ethical standards that will guide and uphold the dignity of the media profession. Finally, Clooney did not give up the situation as he hoped that news media people will have sufficient ethical or moral standards and regard to the privacy of the public (Clooney).            In addressing conditions and graphic images of events and calamity victims, media practitioners are faced with the dilemma or arguments whether to capture and publish the picture or not (Lester). According to Lester and from the circumstances presented, media should generally expect that the public is inclined to criticize a controversial graphic image if some conditions are present. These include the following conditions: â€Å"[if] it was taken by a staff photographer; [if] it comes from a local story; [if] the image is printed in color; [if] the image is printed in a morning paper; [if] the image is printed on the front page; [if] it has no story accompaniment; [if] it shows people overcome with grief; [if] it shows the victim’s body; [if] the body is physically traumatized; [if] the victim is a child; and [if] nudity is involved.†Taking into consideration the said limitations, it can be resolved that the use of graphic i mages in the media is essential but not absolutely free. These limitations are proven useful in order not to be hit by possible firestorms or reactions coming from the offended public (Lester). Conclusion            A picture, indeed, is worth a thousand words. However, no one can ever determine how much history account, feeling, idea, and gut wrenching response some images are worth or can interpret. While the use of graphic images in the media is necessary and critically important in conveying a message or even replacing a whole story, broadcast and print journalists are still bound by a sense of responsibility. Media has the obligation to be sensitive and conscious to the possible negative effects of using gruesome graphic images. Thus, certain limitations have to be in place. However and most importantly, media is still obligated to present the truth even to the extent of painfully showing the realities of life. Works Cited Sophronia, Nora. â€Å"The Boston Photographs.†Envision: Persuasive Writing in a Visual World. Ed. Alfano, Christine and Alyssa O’Brien. New York: Longman Publishers, 2005. Leach, Susan Llewelyn. â€Å"How to tell story of the dead without offending the living.†The        Christian Science Monitor. 19 January 2005. www.csmonitor.com Lester, Paul Martin, â€Å"Photojournalism: An Ethical Approach.†1999. College of  Communications, California State University, Fullerton. 24 March 2008          http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/lester/writings/chapter4.html Rutenberg, Jim and Felicity Barringer. â€Å"After the Attacks: the Ethics; News Media Try to Sort out Policy on Graphic Images.†The New York Times. 25 March 2008 http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=980CE2DE1038F930A2575AC0A9679C8B63
Monday, July 22, 2019
Course Note on Organizational Behaviour Essay Example for Free
Course Note on Organizational Behaviour Essay DEFINITION OF ORGANISATION According to Gary Johns, Organisations are social inventions for accomplishing goals through group efforts. This definition covers wide variety-of groups such as businesses, schools, hospitals, fraternal groups, religious bodies, government agencies and so on. There are three significant aspects in the above definition, which require further analysis. They are as follows: Social Inventions: The word social as a derivative of society basically means gathering of people. It is the people that primarily make up an organisation. Accomplishing Goals: All organisations have reasons for their existence. These reasons are the goals towards which all organisational efforts are directed. While the primary goal .of any commercial organisation is to make money for its owners, this goal is inter-related with many other goals. Accordingly, any organisational goal must integrate in itself the personal goals of all individuals associated with the organisation. Group Effort: People, both as members of the society at large and as a part of an organisation interact with each other and are inter-dependent. Individuals in themselves have physical and intellectual limitations and these limitations can only be overcome by group efforts. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organisational behaviour is concerned with peoples thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in setting up a work. Understanding an individual behaviour is in itself a challenge, but understanding group behaviour in an organisational environment is a monumental managerial task. As Nadler and Tushman put it, Understanding one individuals behaviour is challenging in and of itself; understanding a group that is made up of different individuals and comprehending the many relationships among those individuals is even more complex. Ultimately, the organisations work gets done through people, individually or collectively, on their, own or in collaboration with technology. Therefore, the management of organisational behaviour is central to the management taskâ€â€a task that involves the capacity to understand the behaviour patterns of individuals, groups and organisations, to predict' what behavioural responses will be elicited by various managerial actions and finally to use this understanding and these predictions to achieve control. Organisational behaviour can then be defined as: The study of human behaviour in organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational context, and the organisation itself. The above definition has three partsâ€â€the individual behaviour, the organisation and the (interface between the two. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of beliefs, values, attitudes and other personal characteristics and these characteristics of all individuals must interact with each other in order to create organisational settings. The organisational behaviour is specifically concerned with work-related behaviour, which takes place in organisations. In addition to understanding; the on-going behavioural processes involved, in their own jobs, managers must understand the basic human element of their work. Organisational behaviour offers three major ways of understanding this context; people as organisations, people as resources and people as people. Above all, organisations are people; and without people there would be no organisations. Thus, if managers are to understand the organisations in which they work, they must first understand the people who make up the organisations. As resources, people are one of the organisations most valuable assets. People create the organisation, guide and direct its course, and vitalise and revitalise it. People make the decisions, solve the problems, and answer the questions. As managers increasingly recognise the value of potential contributions by their employees, it will become more and more important for managers and employees to grasp the complexities of organisational behaviour. Finally, there is people as people an argument derived from the simple notion of humanistic management. People spend a large part of their lives in; organisational settings, mostly as employees. They have a right to expect something in return beyond wages and benefits. They have a right to expect satisfaction and to learn new skills. An understanding of organisational behaviour can help the manager better appreciate the variety of individual needs and expectations. Organisational behaviour is concerned with the characteristics and behaviours of employees in isolation; the characteristics and processes that are part of the organisation itself; and the characteristics and behaviours directly resulting from people with their individual needs and motivations working within the structure of the organisation. One cannot understand an individual’s behaviour completely without learning something about that individuals organisation. Similarly, he cannot understand how the organisation operates without; studying the people who-make it up. Thus, the organisation influences and is influenced by individuals. ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure, technology and the environment in which the organisation operates. People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation. They consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives. Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations. Different people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be (elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-ordinated. Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts people in various ways. Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is the part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and other organisations. All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people. NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of personal characteristics, experiences from other organisation, the environment surrounding the organisation and1 they also possess a personal background. In considering the people working in an organisation, organisational behaviour must look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work setting. But individuals do not work in isolation. They come in contact with other individuals and the organisation in a variety of ways. Points of contact include managers, co-workers, formal policies and procedures of the organisation, and various changes implemented by the organisation. Over time, the individual, too, changes, as a function of both the personal experiences and the organisation. The organisation is also affected by the presence and eventual absence of the individual. Clearly, the study of organisational behaviour must consider the ways in which the individual and the organisation interact. An organisation, characteristically, exists before a particular person joins it and continues to exist after he leaves it. Thus, the organisation itself represents a crucial third perspective from which to view organisational behaviour. NEED FOR STUDYING ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR The rules of work are different from the rules of play. The uniqueness of rules and the environment of organisations forces managers to study organisational behaviour in order to learn about normal and abnormal ranges of behaviour. More specifically, organisational behaviour serves three purposes: What causes behaviour? Why particular antecedents cause behaviour? Which antecedents of behaviour can be controlled directly and which are beyond control? A more specific and formal course in organisational behaviour helps an individual to develop more refined and workable sets of assumption that is directly relevant to his work interactions. Organisational behaviour helps in predicting human behaviour in the organisational setting by drawing a clear distinction between individual behaviour and group behaviour. Organisational behaviour does not provide solutions to all complex and different behaviour puzzles of organisations. It is only the intelligent judgement of the manager in dealing with a specific issue that can try to solve the problem. Organisational behaviour only assists in making judgements that are derived from tenable assumptions; judgement that takes into account the important variables underlying the situation; judgement that are assigned due recognition to the complexity of individual or group behaviour; judgement that explicitly takes into account the managers own goals, motives, hang-ups, blind spots and weaknesses. IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organisational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be properly emphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an organisation is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an organisation is Ihe interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction. Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides under standing the human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational behaviour can be understood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level. Organisational behaviour helps to analyse why and how an individual behaves in a particular way. Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of factors including the psychological, social and cultural implications. Organisational behaviour integrates these factors to provide* simplicity in understanding the human behaviour. Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal interaction. Organisational behaviour provides †¢ means for understanding the interpersonal relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and transactional analysis are some of the common methods, which provide such understanding. Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus, individuals should be studied in groups also.. Research in group dynamics has contributed vitally to organisational behaviour and shows how a group behaves in its norms, cohesion, goals, procedures, communication pattern and leadership. These research results are advancing managerial knowledge of understanding group behaviour, which is very important for organisational morale and productivity. Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships is important for managers in todays organisation. Inter-group relationship may be in the form of co-operation or competition.
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